| Sažetak | U svrhu spoznavanja kvalitete života srednjovjekovnih i ranonovovjekovnih populacija koje su živjele na području Hrvatske iz perspektive fizičkih trauma, u ovoj disertaciji su analizirane učestalosti i ustroj trauma na tri kompozitna koštana uzorka: predosmanskog (populacija s područja Hrvatske iz razdoblja od 9. do 14. stoljeća), osmanskog (populacija s područja Hrvatske iz razdoblja od 15. do 16. stoljeća) i vlaškog uzorka (vlaška populacija s područja Hrvatske iz razdoblja od 16. do 18. stoljeća). Koštani materijal je analiziran s ukupno 17 arheoloških nalazišta, 13 ukoliko lokalitete Eraci – Prapovijesne gomile, Eraci – gumno, Eraci – Krč i Eraci Pet gomila gledamo zajednički kao jedan entitet, kao što su gledani u ovoj disertaciji. Analizirana groblja se nalaze na cijelom području Hrvatske – i u kontinentalnom dijelu i u primorskom. Ukupno je analizirano 1582 kostura - 343 kostura u predosmanskom uzorku, 682 u osmanskom uzorku, i 557 u vlaškom uzorku. Kako bi se razlikovale traume nanesene uslijed namjernog međuljudskog nasilja i uslijed nesretnog slučaja, podaci su prikupljani za antemortalne i perimortalne traume za kompletni kostur, pojedinačne duge kosti, lubanju i anatomske regije tijela (lubanju, gornje udove i donje udove). Dodatno su prikupljani i podaci za iščašenja zglobova, traumatski myositis ossificans i osteochondritis dissecans. Dobiveni rezultati za uzorke su međusobno komparirani kako bi se dobila temporalna slika promjena o uvjetima života koji prate dolazak Osmanlija na područje Hrvatske. Rezultati provedenih analiza su pokazali da je kvaliteta života iz perspektive antemortalnih trauma na dugim kostima gotovo jednaka u sva tri uzorka što je odraz vrlo slične strategije preživljavanja kod populacija. Poznato je da su antičke urbane sredine zamijenjene malim srednjovjekovnim ruralnim zajednicama koje su se primarno bavile ratarstvom, a u dalmatinskom zaleđu i stočarstvom. Vlaške zajednice su se primarno bavile transhumantnim stočarstvom. U rezultatima je, također, vidljiva jasna spolna raspodjela poslova u predosmanskom i osmanskom uzorku gdje muškarci obavljaju teže i riskantnije poslove. U vlaškom uzorku ta raspodjela je puno manje izražena što sugerira podjednaku raspodjelu poslova između muškaraca i žena u svrhu brže prilagodbe u novoj domovini. Veći broj trauma na lubanji kod muškaraca u sva tri uzorka također sugerira spolnu raspodjelu poslova kod koje teže i opasnije zadatke obavljaju muškarci, međutim, to isto tako može ukazivati na kulturno nametnuto ponašanje koje izjednačava muževnost s agresivnošću. U prilog nasilnoj etiologiji trauma na lubanji ide i činjenica da se najveća učestalost trauma na lubanji nalazi na čeonoj kosti. Analiza jednostrukih i višestrukih pokazatelja namjernog međuljudskog nasilja pokazuje da je međuljudsko nasilje, iako bez statističkog značaja, najveće u osmanskom uzorku. Muškarci, u odnosu na žene, imaju veću ili statistički značajno veću učestalost jednostrukih i višestrukih skeletnih indikatora namjernog nasilja u sva tri uzorka što ukazuje da je interpersonalna agresija bila usmjerena upravo prema njima. Usprkos očekivanom porastu nasilja u obitelji u vrijeme osmanskih osvajanja, rezultati su pokazali da je razina nasilja podjednaka u svim uzorcima što je potencijalno rezultat uključenosti malog broja dobro sačuvanih i prikladnih kostura u analizu, ali i dobro remodeliranih fraktura u slučaju djece. Gledajući iz perspektive perimortalnih trauma, uvjeti života se u kasnom srednjem vijeku drastično pogoršavaju što je vidljivo u velikom porastu broja osoba s perimortalnim traumama u osmanskom uzorku. Činjenica da je preko 90% žrtava u osmanskom uzorku ubijeno nekom vrstom oštrobridnog oružja (morfologija ozljeda sugerira da se radi o maču ili sablji), upućuje na zaključak da je većina ljudi u uzorku smrtno stradala upravo u napadima akindžija/martologa koji su u manjim ili većim skupinama upadali na kršćanski teritorij i palili i pljačkali sve pred sobom, te odvodili ljude u robstvo, a sve u svrhu zarade te slabljenja i demoralizacije protivničke strane prije dolaska regularne osmanlijske vojske. Veći broj ubijenih muškaraca nego žena sugerira da su muškarci češće sudjelovali u direktnim sukobima ili da su bili glavna meta svojim napadačima s obzirom da su bili veća prijetnja. Žene s druge strane imaju veći broj perimortalnih trauma čija morfologija i distribucija upućuju na činjenicu da su se njihovi napadači fizički iživljavali nad njima. Rezultati analize specifičnih vrsta traume, iščašenih zglobova, traumatskog myositis ossificans-a i osteochondritis dissecansa nam pokazuju da je u svim uzorcima bila prisutna niska učestalost spomenutih trauma i da razlika između uzoraka nije bila statistički značajna. Unutar uzoraka, muškarci su ti koji imaju najveću učestalost svih triju specifičnih trauma (izuzetak je jedino osteochondritis dissecans u osmanskom uzorku) što dodatno potvrđuje spolnu raspodjelu poslova. U svim provedenim analizama djeca imaju manju ili statistički značajno manju učestalost trauma od odraslih osoba što je rezultat njihovog kratkog života, loše uščuvanosti njihovih kostura i remodelacija kostiju nakon ozljeda koje su u potpunosti izbrisale tragove trauma. Zaključno, dobiveni podaci pokazuju da se rizik od zadobivanja ozljeda uslijed svakodnevnih radova nije mijenjao kroz promatrana razdoblja, unatoč činjenici da su se srednjovjekovne populacije primarno bavile ratarstvom, a vlaška populacija transhumantnim stočarstvom. Također, muškarci su u svim uzorcima bili rizičnija skupina iz razloga što su najvjerojatnije obavljali fizički zahtjevnije i rizičnije poslove od žena. S druge strane, kontinuirano ratovanje s Osmanlijama rezultiralo je velikim povećanjem broja ubijenih ljudi, naročito mladih odraslih muškaraca i žena. Ono što je donekle iznenađujuće u uzorku jest činjenica da se muškarci i žene razlikuju po broju prisutnih perimortalnih trauma – 18 muškaraca ima 45 trauma, a 7 žena ima 59 trauma što upućuje na scenarij u kojem su žene bile brutalno mučene. Moguće je da je ovakva učestalost i distribucija perimortalnih trauma u uzorku odraz činjenice da je veliki broj osoba s traumama pronađen na jednom nalazištu – Čepinu gdje su akindžije 1441. godine upale i terorizirale stanovništvo. Kako bi se ustanovilo da li je takav scenarij teroriziranja bio tipičan za akindžije, potrebno je provesti daljnja istraživanja na nalazištima za koja postoje povijesni podaci o takvim provalama. |
| Sažetak (engleski) | In this thesis an analysis of the frequency and patterning of bone trauma was conducted on three composite skeletal series: pre-ottoman sample (populations that lived on croatian territory from the 9th to 14th century), ottoman sample (populations that lived on croatian territory from the 15th to 16th century) and vlach sample (vlach populations that lived on croatian territory from the 16th to 18th century) in order to assertain the quality of life of medieval and early modern populations who lived on the territory of Croatia from the perspective of physical traumas. Skeletal material was analysed from 17 archaeological sites, 13 if Eraci – Prapovijesne gomile site, Eraci – gumno site, Eraci – Krč site and Eraci - Pet gomila site are percieved as one entity, as they are percieved in this thesis. The analyzed cemeteries are located throughout Croatia - in both the continental and coastal part. A total of 1582 skeletons were analyzed – 343 skeletons from the pre-ottoman sample, 682 from the ottoman sample, and 557 from the vlach sample. To differentiate between intentional violence and accidental injuries, data for antemortem and perimortem trauma frequencies were collected for the complete skeleton, individual long bones, the skull, and specific anatomical areas (the skull, upper limbs and lower limbs). Additionally, data were collected for joint disslocations, traumatic myositis ossificans and osteochondritis dissecans. The results obtained for the samples were compared with one another in order to obtain a temporal picture of changes in the living conditions accompanying the arrival of the Ottomans in Croatia. The results of the analyzes have shown that the quality of life from the perspective of long-bone antemortem trauma was almost the same in all three samples, reflecting a very similar survival strategy in populations. It is recognized that antique period urban centers were replaced with small medieval rural communities that were primarily engaged in agriculture, as well as in livestock farming in the Dalmatian hinterland. The Vlach communities were primarily engaged in transhumant pastoralism. The results also show a strict sexual division of labor in the pre-ottoman and ottoman sample, where men performed more difficult and risky tasks. In the Vlach sample, this division is less pronounced, suggesting an equal division of labour between men and women, possibly in an attempt to adjust more quickly to their new homeland. The greater number of traumas on the skull in men in all three samples also suggests a sexual division of labour where more difficult and dangerous tasks are performed by men, allthough, it may also indicate culturally imposed behaviors that equated masculinity with aggression. The violent etiology of trauma to the skull is also supported by the fact that the highest frequency of trauma to the skull is found on the frontal bone. The analysis of single and multiple indicators of intentional interpersonal violence shows that interpersonal violence, while not achieving statistical significance, is highest in the Ottoman sample. Males, compared to females, exhibit higher or statistically significantly higher frequency of single and multiple skeletal indicators of deliberate violence in all three samples, indicating that interpersonal aggression was directed primarily towards them. Despite the expected increase in domestic violence in the time of the Ottoman conquests, the results show that the level of this kind of violence was the same in all samples, potentially as a result of the involvement of only a small number of well-preserved and appropriate skeletons in the analysis, but also of well-remodeled fractures in children. From the perspective of perimortem traumas, living conditions deteriorated dramatically during the late Middle Ages which is evident in the large increase in the number of people with perimortem traumas in the Ottoman sample. The fact that over 90% of the victims in the Ottoman sample were killed by some type of sharp-edged weapon (the morphology of injuries suggests that they were inflicted with swords or sabres) suggests that most people in the sample were killed in akinji / martologists raids. Akinji and Martologists raided Christian territories in smaller or larger groups, and burned and plundered everything in front of them, taking people into slavery, to earn money and weaken and demoralize the enemy before the arrival of the regular Ottoman army. The fact that more men were killed than women, suggests that men were more likely to engage in the direct combat or that, as they were perceived to be a greater threat than women, they were primary targets for the attackers. Women, on the other hand, have a higher number of perimortem traumas whose morphology and distribution in the skeleton suggest gratuitous violence. The results of the analysis of specific types of trauma, joint dislocations, traumatic myositis ossificans and osteochondritis dissecans,show low frequencies of those traumas in all samples, and that the difference between the samples is not statistically significant. Within the samples, males exhibit the highest frequency of all three specific traumas (the only exception being osteochondritis dissecans in the ottoman sample), which further confirms the sexual division of labor. In all of the analyses conducted, children exhibit a lower or statistically significantly lower trauma frequencies than adults as a result of their short lifespan, poor skeletal preservation, and bone remodeling after injuries that completely obliterated trauma traces. In conclusion, the data obtained in this study shows that the risk of gaining injury from performing everyday chores did not change over the observed periods, despite the fact that medieval populations were primarily engaged in agriculture and the Vlach population in transhumant pastoralism. Also, males in all samples were at higher risk because they were most likely to perform more demanding and risky tasks than females. On the other hand, continuous warfare with the Ottomans resulted in an increased number of people killed, especially young adult males and females. What is somewhat surprising in the sample is the fact that males and females differ in the number of perimortem traumas present - 18 males exhibit 45 traumas and 7 females exhibit 59 traumas, suggesting a scenario in which women were subjected to gratuitous violence, i.e. torture. It is possible that this frequency and distribution of perimortem trauma in the sample is a reflection of the fact that a large number of traumas were found at one site - Čepin, where in 1441 an akinji party raided the population. In order to determine whether such scenarios were typical of akinji raids, further research needs to be conducted at sites for which there is historical evidence of such raids. |
